types of evidence in a persuasive essay

6 Types of Evidence in Writing

Chris Drew (PhD)

Dr. Chris Drew is the founder of the Helpful Professor. He holds a PhD in education and has published over 20 articles in scholarly journals. He is the former editor of the Journal of Learning Development in Higher Education. [Image Descriptor: Photo of Chris]

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Writing an essay is a lot like participating in a debate. You have a main point that you want to make, and you need to support it. So, the question is: how do you support your main point?

The best way is to provide evidence.

Evidence can come from many sources and take many forms, but generally speaking, there are six types of evidence.

Each type of evidence may carry more weight than others. Choosing which type of evidence to use depends on the purpose of the essay and the audience.

For example, for essays in psychology or sociology that will be read by professors, evidence from research papers and statistics will be suitable, and expected.

However, if writing for the general public, evidence in the form of quotes from experts or testimonials from people involved in the subject may be more effective.

Ideally, it is good to have a mix of the different types of evidence so that the essay is well-rounded.

Using various types of evidence also shows the reader that you have researched the topic thoroughly. That will add credibility to the essay as a whole and instill an impression that the author is competent and trustworthy.

Here is a brief description of the six main types of evidence.

You Might Also Like: Transition Words for Providing Evidence in Essays

Types of Evidence in Writing

1. anecdotal evidence.

Anecdotal evidence comes from personal experience. It can involve a story about something that happened to you, or an observation you made about friends, relatives, or other people.

An informal interview with someone affected by the topic you are writing about is also a form of anecdotal evidence. That interview may have been conducted by the author of the essay or presented on a news program.

Although it is not considered very strong evidence, it does have a purpose. Describing a personal experience early in the essay can help establish context, show relevance of the subject, or be a way to build a connection with the audience.

In some cases, anecdotal evidence can be quite effective. It can reveal deeply personal or emotional elements of a phenomenon that are very compelling. Not all essays need to be full of scientific references and statistics to be effective at making a point.

See More: 19 Anecdotal Evidence Examples

2. Testimonial Evidence

Offering the opinion of an expert is referred to as testimonial evidence. Their opinion can come from an interview or quote from a book or paper they authored.

The words of someone who is considered an expert in a subject can provide a lot of support to the point you are trying to make. It adds strength and shows that what you are saying is not just your opinion, but is also the opinion of someone that is recognized and respected in the subject.

If that expert has an advanced degree from a notable university, such as Princeton or Stanford, then make sure the reader knows that. Similarly, if they are the president or director of an institution that is heavily involved in the subject, then be sure to include those credentials as well.

If your essay is for an academic course, use proper citation. This often involves indicating the year of the quote, where it was published, and the page number where the quote comes from.

Finally, if quoting an expert, choose the quote carefully. Experts sometimes use language that is overly complex or contains jargon that many readers may not understand. Limiting the quote to 1 or 2 sentences is also a good idea.

3. Statistical Evidence

Statistical evidence involves presenting numbers that support your point. Statistics can be used to demonstrate the prevalence and seriousness of a phenomenon.

When used early in the essay, it informs the reader as to how important the topic is and can be an effective way to get the reader’s attention.

For example, citing the number of people that die each year because they weren’t wearing a seat belt, or the number of children suffering from malnutrition, tells the reader that the topic is serious.

In addition to stating statistics in the body of the essay, including a graph or two will help make the point easier to understand. A picture can be worth a thousand words also applies to graphs and charts.

Graphs and charts also create a sense of credibility and add an extra punch of strength to your arguments.

Statistics can also be used to counter common misconceptions. This is a good way to clear the air right away regarding an issue that may not be well understood or in which there has been a lot of misinformation presented previously.

When presenting statistics, establish credibility by citing the source. Make sure that source is reputable. Scientific publications or well-respected organizations such as the CDC are good examples.

If your essay is for an academic assignment, then be sure to follow the publication guidelines for that discipline. Papers in business, sociology, and law have different rules for how to cite sources.

As persuasive as statistics can be, beware that many readers may be suspicious. There is a belief among some people that statistics are often faked or manipulated. This is due, in part, to many people not understanding the peer-review process that occurs before scientific papers are published.

4. Textual Evidence

Textual evidence comes directly from a source document. This could be a literary work or historical document. It is frequently used in an argumentative essay or as part of a compare-and-contrast type of academic assignment.

For example, if conducting a character analysis of a character in a novel, then identifying key sentences that provide examples of their personality will help support your analysis.

There are several ways of incorporating textual evidence: quoting, paraphrasing, and summarizing.

Quoting statements from the character themselves can be used to demonstrate their thought processes or personality flaws. Likewise, using the words of the author that describe the character will add support to your premise.

Paraphrasing involves conveying the points in the source document by using your own words. There is usually a degree of correspondence between the amount of text in the document and the paraphrased version. In other words, if your paraphrased version is longer than the section in the source document, then you should try again.

Summarizing involves condensing the text in the source document to its main points and highlighting the key takeaways you want the reader to focus on.

5. Analogical Evidence

An analogy is an example of a situation, but presented in a different context. Using an analogy is a great way to explain a complicated issue that is simpler and easier to digest.

Medical doctors often use analogies to describe health-related issues. For example, they might say that getting a yearly medical exam from your primary physician is like taking your car to the mechanic once a year to make sure everything is running okay.

One rule of thumb about analogies is that the simpler they are, the more easily understood. The analogy should have a degree of similarity with the issue being discussed, but, at the same time, be a bit different as well. Sorry about that; it’s a balance.

Be careful not to use an analogy that is too far-fetched. For example, comparing the human body to the universe is too much of a stretch. This might confuse the reader, make them feel frustrated because they don’t see the connection, and/or cause them to lose interest.

6. Hypothetical Evidence

Hypothetical evidence is presenting the reader with a “what if” kind of scenario. This is a great way to get the reader to consider possibilities that they may not have thought of previously.

One way to present a hypothetical is to pair it with a credible statistic. Ask the reader to consider what might happen in the context of those numbers.

Another strategy is to restate one of your arguments, and then present a hypothetical that aligns with that point. For example, if what you are saying is true, then X, Y, and Z may occur.

By providing a concrete hypothetical scenario, people can imagine what could happen. Opening a person’s mindset can be the first step towards an effective and persuasive essay.

There are many examples in history of phenomenon that people never thought possible, but later turned out to materialize. For example, climate change.

In the early days of climate science, the evidence was not readily available to a convincing degree to persuade the general public. However, extrapolating into the future through the use of hypotheticals can help people consider the possibility of fossil fuels causing climate crises.

The emotional dynamics activated when thinking about the future can help open some people’s eyes to different possibilities and generate concern. If only this had happened about 50 years ago.

Providing evidence for your main point in an essay can make it effective and persuasive. There are many types of evidence, and each one varies in terms of its strength and pertinence to the purpose of the essay.

In some situations, for example, anecdotal evidence and testimonials are sufficient to get a reader’s attention. In other situations, however, such as essays in the sciences, the reader will expect to see more than just opinions of the author.

Presenting statistics from reputable sources can add a lot of strength to an essay. While a lot of people are convinced by numbers, others are not.

Using quotes, either from experts or from a source document, are also effective ways to add support to the essay’s main point.

Analogies will help the reader understand a complex topic, while hypotheticals can be an effective way to get people to extend their thinking and consider what could happen if…

Incorporating several types of evidence is best. If all arguments in an essay only come from the author, it can come across as flimsy. A chair with three legs is better than a chair with two.

Bailey, S. (2003). Academic writing: A practical guide for students . Cheltenham, U.K.: Nelson Thornes Ltd.

Redman, P., & Maples, W. (2017). Good essay writing: A social sciences guide . Sage.

Savage, A., & Mayer, P. (2006). Effective academic writing: The short essay . Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Starkey, L. B. (2004). How to write great essays . Learning Express.

Warburton, N. (2020). The basics of essay writing . Routledge.

• Chris Drew (PhD) https://helpfulprofessor.com/author/chris-drew-phd/ Free Social Skills Worksheets
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Types of Evidence in Writing [Ultimate Guide + Examples]

When it comes to writing, the strength of your argument often hinges on the evidence you present.

Here is a quick summary of the types of evidence in writing:

Types of evidence in writing include statistical, testimonial, anecdotal, analogical, textual, visual, logical, experimental, historical, ethical, cultural, and practical evidence. Each type strengthens arguments by providing varied support, making your writing more credible and persuasive.

In this article, we’ll explore the different types of evidence in writing and how you can effectively use them to enhance your work.

What Is Evidence in Writing?

Table of Contents

Evidence in writing refers to the information, facts, or data used to support your arguments or claims.

It serves to back up your points, making your writing more credible and convincing.

Whether you’re writing a research paper or crafting a compelling blog post, incorporating evidence is crucial to establishing your authority and gaining the trust of your readers.

Evidence can take many forms, from statistics and expert testimonials to personal anecdotes and visual aids.

The key is to use a variety of evidence types to provide a well-rounded and robust argument.

By doing so, you can address different perspectives and strengthen your overall message.

Types of Evidence in Writing

There are several types of evidence you can use in your writing.

Each type has its strengths and can be particularly effective in different contexts.

Let’s explore the various types of evidence and how you can use them to your advantage.

1. Statistical Evidence

Statistical evidence involves using numbers and data to support your claims. This type of evidence is highly persuasive because it provides concrete, quantifiable proof that can be difficult to dispute.

• Charts and graphs

Detailed Examples: Imagine you’re writing an article about the benefits of remote work. You could include statistics from a recent survey showing that 85% of employees report higher productivity when working from home. Or, if you’re discussing the impact of climate change, you could use data from scientific studies that illustrate rising global temperatures over the past century.

2. Testimonial Evidence

Testimonial evidence includes quotes from experts or witnesses that support your argument.

This type of evidence can add credibility to your writing, especially when the testimonials come from respected authorities in the field.

• Expert opinions
• Witness statements

Detailed Examples: If you’re writing a piece on the effectiveness of a new medical treatment, you could include quotes from doctors who have successfully used the treatment with their patients. For a product review, testimonials from satisfied customers can provide valuable insights and persuade potential buyers.

3. Anecdotal Evidence

Anecdotal evidence involves using personal stories or experiences to illustrate a point.

While not as scientifically rigorous as statistical evidence, anecdotes can be powerful because they connect with readers on an emotional level.

• Personal anecdotes
• Case studies

Detailed Examples: Suppose you’re writing about overcoming adversity. Sharing a personal story about a challenging time in your life and how you persevered can inspire and resonate with readers. Similarly, in a business context, you might use case studies to demonstrate how a particular strategy helped a company achieve success.

4. Analogical Evidence

Analogical evidence uses analogies or comparisons to explain a concept.

This type of evidence can help make complex ideas more relatable and easier to understand for your audience.

Detailed Examples: If you’re explaining a complicated technical process, you might compare it to a more familiar concept. For example, you could explain the functioning of a computer network by comparing it to a postal system where data packets are like letters being sent through various routes to reach their destination.

5. Textual Evidence

Textual evidence involves using quotes or excerpts from texts to support your arguments.

This type of evidence is commonly used in literary analysis and research papers.

• Quotes from books
• Research papers

Detailed Examples: In a literary essay, you might analyze a novel by quoting specific passages that highlight the author’s use of symbolism. In a research paper, you could support your hypothesis by referencing studies published in reputable journals.

6. Visual Evidence

Visual evidence includes images, videos, or visual aids that help support your claims.

This type of evidence can be particularly effective in making your argument more engaging and easier to comprehend.

• Photographs
• Infographics

Detailed Examples: If you’re writing about the effects of plastic pollution, you could include photographs of polluted beaches to visually underscore the problem. Infographics can also be useful for presenting complex data in a visually appealing and easily digestible format.

7. Logical Evidence

Logical evidence involves using logical reasoning and facts to support your arguments.

This type of evidence is based on sound reasoning and helps establish a clear, rational argument.

• Deductive reasoning
• Inductive reasoning
• Logical arguments

Detailed Examples: In an argumentative essay, you might use deductive reasoning to show that if all humans are mortal and Socrates is human, then Socrates must be mortal. Inductive reasoning could involve drawing conclusions based on observed patterns, such as predicting market trends based on historical data.

8. Experimental Evidence

Experimental evidence comes from experiments or scientific research.

This type of evidence is highly reliable because it is based on controlled, repeatable experiments.

• Lab results
• Field studies
• Scientific experiments

Detailed Examples: In a scientific paper, you might present the results of an experiment you conducted to test a hypothesis. For instance, if you’re studying the effects of a new drug, you could include data from clinical trials that demonstrate its efficacy and safety.

9. Historical Evidence

Historical evidence involves using historical events or data to support your arguments.

This type of evidence can provide valuable context and show how past events relate to current issues.

• Historical records
• Historical documents

Detailed Examples: If you’re writing about the importance of civil rights, you could reference key events in history, such as the Civil Rights Movement, to highlight progress and ongoing challenges. Using historical documents, like speeches or legal rulings, can also provide authoritative support for your arguments.

10. Ethical Evidence

Ethical evidence uses ethical considerations to support arguments.

This type of evidence appeals to the reader’s sense of right and wrong and can be particularly persuasive in discussions involving moral issues.

• Moral arguments
• Ethical dilemmas
• Values-based reasoning

Detailed Examples: In an essay on animal rights, you might argue that it is ethically wrong to subject animals to inhumane treatment, using ethical theories like utilitarianism to support your stance. Discussing the ethical implications of artificial intelligence in society can also highlight potential benefits and risks.

11. Cultural Evidence

Cultural evidence involves using cultural references and norms to support your arguments.

This type of evidence can be effective in showing how societal values and practices influence behaviors and attitudes.

• Cultural practices
• Societal norms
• Popular culture

Detailed Examples: If you’re writing about the impact of social media, you could reference cultural phenomena like viral trends and memes to illustrate how they shape public opinion. Discussing societal norms, such as gender roles, can also provide context for arguments about social change.

12. Practical Evidence

Practical evidence uses real-world examples and applications to support your arguments.

This type of evidence is useful for demonstrating how theoretical concepts can be applied in practice.

• Real-world applications
• Practical examples
• Demonstrations

Detailed Examples: In a business report, you might present case studies showing how companies successfully implemented new strategies to achieve their goals. Demonstrating practical applications, like how a new technology improves productivity, can also make your arguments more compelling.

Here is a video about some of the most powerful types of evidence in writing:

How to Use Evidence in Writing

Evidence isn’t one-size-fits-all. Different types of evidence are more effective in different contexts.

Understanding these use cases helps you choose the right evidence to strengthen your arguments and make your writing more compelling.

Academic Writing: In academic papers, statistical and textual evidence are vital. They provide the empirical data and scholarly references needed to back up your claims. Experimental evidence is also crucial for scientific papers, ensuring that your hypotheses are supported by reproducible results.

Business Writing: In business writing, such as reports and proposals, practical and testimonial evidence can make a significant impact. Real-world examples and customer testimonials lend credibility to your recommendations and strategies.

Creative Writing: For creative writing, anecdotal and analogical evidence often work best. Personal stories and analogies help convey deeper meanings and connect with readers on an emotional level.

Journalistic Writing: Journalistic pieces benefit from a mix of historical, visual, and ethical evidence. Historical context provides background, visual evidence engages readers, and ethical considerations highlight the moral implications of the story.

Persuasive Writing: In persuasive essays, logical and ethical evidence are key. Logical reasoning builds a solid foundation for your argument, while ethical evidence appeals to the reader’s sense of right and wrong, making your case more compelling.

Here’s a simple table summarizing different use cases for various types of writing evidence:

Common Mistakes Writers Make with Different Types of Evidence

Even with a variety of evidence at your disposal, it’s easy to make mistakes that can weaken your arguments.

Here are some common pitfalls and tips on how to avoid them:

1. Misinterpreting Statistical Evidence

Mistake: Presenting statistics without proper context or misinterpreting the data can mislead your readers. Statistics can be compelling, but they must be accurate and relevant.

How to Avoid: Always provide the source of your statistics and explain what the numbers mean. Ensure your interpretation aligns with the data. Cross-check your sources for credibility.

2. Overreliance on Testimonial Evidence

Mistake: Using too many testimonials can make your writing seem biased or less credible, especially if the testimonials are not from reputable sources.

How to Avoid: Balance testimonials with other types of evidence. Ensure that your sources are credible and relevant to your topic. Use testimonials to complement, not replace, factual evidence.

3. Anecdotal Evidence Overuse

Mistake: Relying too heavily on personal anecdotes can make your writing appear subjective and less persuasive, especially in academic or scientific contexts.

How to Avoid: Use anecdotes to illustrate a point or add a personal touch, but back them up with more objective evidence. Ensure that anecdotes are relevant and directly support your argument.

4. Ineffective Use of Analogical Evidence

Mistake: Analogies that are too complex or not directly related to the topic can confuse readers instead of clarifying your point.

How to Avoid: Choose analogies that are simple and relatable. Ensure that the comparison clearly illustrates your point and enhances understanding.

5. Misquoting or Misusing Textual Evidence

Mistake: Taking quotes out of context or misinterpreting the original meaning can undermine your credibility.

How to Avoid: Always provide context for quotes and ensure your interpretation is accurate. Cite sources correctly to maintain academic integrity.

6. Overloading with Visual Evidence

Mistake: Using too many images, charts, or videos can overwhelm readers and detract from the main message.

How to Avoid: Use visual evidence selectively to support key points. Ensure visuals are high-quality, relevant, and well-explained.

7. Logical Fallacies in Logical Evidence

Mistake: Logical fallacies, such as faulty generalizations or circular reasoning, can weaken your argument and make it less convincing.

How to Avoid: Build your arguments on sound reasoning and evidence. Be aware of common logical fallacies and avoid them in your writing.

8. Ignoring Ethical Implications

Mistake: Failing to address the ethical dimensions of your argument can make your writing appear one-sided or insensitive.

How to Avoid: Consider the ethical implications of your topic. Use ethical evidence to provide a balanced perspective and address potential concerns.

9. Using Outdated Historical Evidence

Mistake: Relying on outdated or irrelevant historical evidence can weaken your argument and make it less convincing.

How to Avoid: Use up-to-date and relevant historical evidence. Provide context to show how past events relate to your current argument.

10. Cultural Evidence Stereotyping

Mistake: Using cultural evidence that reinforces stereotypes or oversimplifies complex cultural issues can be offensive and reduce credibility.

How to Avoid: Approach cultural evidence with sensitivity and respect. Ensure that your references are accurate and nuanced.

11. Practical Evidence That Lacks Relevance

Mistake: Including practical examples that are not directly related to your argument can confuse readers and weaken your message.

How to Avoid: Choose practical evidence that is directly relevant and clearly supports your main points. Provide clear explanations of how the evidence applies.

Final Thoughts: Types of Evidence in Writing

Evidence is just one part of the writing puzzle.

You’ll also need to know how to come up with a hypothesis, write topic sentences, deploy counterclaim language, and more.

Read This Next:

• How to Write a Hypothesis [31 Tips + Examples]
• How to Write a Topic Sentence (30+ Tips & Examples)
• How to Describe a Graph in Writing [+ 22 Examples]
• 50 Best Counterclaim Transition Words (+ Examples)
• What Is A Warrant In Writing? (Explained + 20 Examples)

Chap. 11: Making an Argument: The Argument / Persuasive Essay

Types of evidence in argument/persuasive papers.

Support your position or thesis with evidence . Remember that your evidence must appeal to reason. The following are different ways to support your argument:

◆ Statistics

1.   using facts is a powerful means of convincing..

Facts can come from your reading, observation, or personal experience. Facts cannot be disputed. This makes them a strong form of evidence. Note: Do not confuse facts with truths. A “truth” is an idea believed by many people, but it cannot be proven. For example:

•        Grass is green.

•        All cats are animals.

•        Jumping out of airplanes without a parachute is hazardous.

2.   Using statistics can provide excellent support for your argument.

Arguments employing amounts and numbers are concrete and therefore support claims because they use logic and facts. Be sure your statistics come from good sources, which you will cite. Examples:

•        Over 61% of Americans are overweight.

•        Unemployment in Illinois is at 5%.

•        During each game, Sean Hill of the NY Islanders spent an average of 20:09 minutes on the ice.

3.   Using quotes from leading experts or authorities in their fields will support your position —this is a logical appeal and is accepted by other academics as a good way to back up your claims.

Note: You may also summarize or paraphrase an expert. In that case, you would not use quotation marks.

•        Dr. Kenneth P. Moritsugu, U.S. Surgeon General, described long term problems associated with underage drinking: “Research shows that young people who start drinking before the age of 15 are five times more likely to have alcohol-related problems later in life.”

•        Samantha King, a noted forensic specialist, stated that DNA evidence is usually indisputable. [ Note: Samantha King’s testimony is paraphrased, not quoted. ]

It is EXTREMELY important to make sure that the authoritative information you choose is actually accurate and relevant to your point . Sometimes, so-called authorities are not what they seem or information is misleading.

• My two friends in Florida think that Miami’s a better place to visit than Chicago. ( Note: these are biased sources. )
• My grandmother, who has property worth over $2 million, believes that estate tax laws need overhauling. ( Note: she’s probably not an expert in tax law, and she has a vested interest. )
• Movie critic Eleanor Lyttle writes that Star Wars Revenge of the Sith is “wondrous” and “a must- see.” ( Note: the actual quotation read: “ Revenge of the Sith is a horrific film. It is a wondrous waste, but it is a must-see if you want to understand what a truly bad move looks like.” In this case, obviously, the quotations are used out of context. )
• Dr. Petrelli endorses energy drinks to boost metabolism. ( Note: who is Dr. Petrelli? )

4. Using examples or anecdotes from your own experience can enhance your meaning and also engage the reader.

Personal examples make your ideas concrete. These real-life examples allow a reader to relate to the issues personally.

• For many years, my best friend’s husband beat her—the police did nothing about it; therefore, we need better laws so domestic abusers can be punished more stringently.
• After living in Iceland for a decade, I can honestly say that the people are kind and warm.
• Immigration laws should allow amnesty to illegals—my father came here from Mexico twenty years ago, and he has worked 50 hours a week to support us. If he is deported, he will leave behind his children, who are citizens. I do not think this is fair to all of us.

For personal experience to be convincing, however, it must also be applicable, present reasonable background understanding, show a universal or general situation, and be related to the thesis somehow. The following statements would not be very convincing for example:

• I’ve never been to Australia, but it seems from all the movies I’ve seen about the place that they all like to drink and barbecue.
• My experience in visiting Canada on a high school trip showed me that their medical system is superior to ours.
• Cats are not friendly. My neighbor’s cat never comes to me when I call it.

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Learning Goals

• Understand the purpose of evidence in support of an argument, opinion, or claim Recognize that evidence comes in different forms (expert opinion, statistics, personal anecdotes, etc.) Recognize eviden

Identifying & Using Evidence in Persuasive Writing

Design Guide - Identifying & Using Evidence in Persuasive Writing

Designers for Learning - Adult Learning Zone

Table of Contents

Project Requirements

Part 1: Lesson Description

Lesson title, learner audience / primary users, educational use, college & career readiness standards (ccrs) alignment, material type, time required for lesson, prior knowledge, required resources, lesson author & license, part 2: lesson, learning objectives, lesson topics, context summary, relevance to practice, key terms and concepts, instructional strategies and activities.

Introduction

Presentation / Modeling / Demonstration

Guided practice.

Application

Part 3: Supplementary Resources & References

Supplementary resources, attribution statements.

The learner audience for this lesson are adults preparing for the GED, specifically the English/Language Arts portion. The lesson introduces “evidence” as a necessary support for claims in a persuasive essay, or argument.  It demonstrates what the relationship between words and ideas in a claim should be to the key ideas in a passage, or passages, cited in support of a claim.  Learners practice using evidence to support a claim about the role of motivation and procrastination in their own lives, then find at least one piece of evidence from an article on that topic.  

Audience is adults who have not finished high school.  Many adult learners have had wrong turns and setbacks moving forward in their lives.  They’ve frequently found little validation in academic settings, which means they’re on their own in terms of motivation.  If they can figure out how to cultivate new habits and mindsets regarding short-term and long-term goals, it should be a big step in the right direction. The psychology topic embedded in this lesson is intended to support their efforts, while also teaching a necessary writing skill. Although learner backgrounds and personal histories vary widely, users’ willingness to work toward a GED sets them apart from peers who never take that step.  Adult learners need to sense respect for their life knowledge and maturity, so scaffolding has to be thoughtfully designed to provide sufficient help, without appearing to condescend.

Curriculum / Instruction

• Level: Adult Education
• Grade Level: E (9-12)
• Subject: English/Language Arts
• Strand: Reading and Writing
• Standard Description: (Reading) CCR Anchor 1:  Cite strong and thorough textual evidence to support analysis of what the text says explicitly, as well as inferences drawn from the text. (Writing) CCR Anchor 9:  Draw evidence from literary or informational texts to support analysis, reflection and research.
• Instructional Material
• Readings and Guided Practice

The purpose of this lesson is for learners to be able to:

• Explain the purpose of evidence in support of an argument, opinion, or claim
• Identify various types of evidence within a document, or other source (i.e., expert opinion, statistics, report, personal anecdote, etc.)
• Identify evidence that is relevant to a claim
• Independently identify, and use, evidence from a document in support of an argument, opinion, or claim
• Designers for Learning
• Adult Education
• Writing, evidence, claims, informational texts
• Ability to read fiction/non-fiction text(s) at a 9th-grade level
• Understanding of how to identify main topics/sub-topics in a text
• Ability to distinguish facts vs. opinions
• Understanding of “argument”, as used in persuasive writing

Internet, in order to access the Open Author  online lesson and web page links.  Alternative:  The ability to download, and/or print articles and worksheet for learner use offline.

• Lesson Author: Sharon Minnoch
• License: Creative Commons CC BY 4.0 license

By the end of this lesson, the learner should be able to:

• Identify evidence (within a document) that is relevant to a specific claim, argument, or opinion
• Explain evidence in own words (paraphrase)
• Describe how evidence effectively supports a stated claim
• Write a short paragraph stating a claim in in their own words, then connect that claim to a quote (from the article provided) to support it using sample phrases.

Key topics covered in this lesson include:

What really helps people change their habits? Learners read: “The Psychological Origins of Procrastination - and How We Can Stop Putting Things Off”.  The article serves, then, as a source of evidence  for what does, or does not work, whichever position matches the claim statement learners devise, based on their own experience.

Writing to persuade others is most effective when the author uses “evidence” from real events (personal stories), quotes experts’ opinions, or statistics, from reliable sources (reputable newspapers/magazines, authors with a background in the field, government/, industry studies and surveys, etc.).  

This lesson serves two purposes:   1) Exploring a topic that helps learners reflect on how well they are able to “drive” their own productivity, and   2) Demonstrating how evidence supports an argument, then providing practice in the use of evidence.

Productivity and self-motivation are important factors for education and career success.  Self-knowledge is a first step in achieving more personal success.  The ability to cite evidence effectively is an important English/Language Arts skill, and part of the CCRS standards and GED test.  It’s also important to work situations.  Examples: a) “x” is not shipping correctly, because “y” information ( evidence ) isn’t being recorded correctly, or b) this report excerpt ( evidence ) explains the desired outcome of “x”.  The ability to successfully explain “evidence of experience, or skill, that matches a job description may mean the difference between being hired, or not.

Argument / Persuasive Writing Evidence Paraphrasing

Time: 2 minutes

Evidence (Definition:   The available body of facts of information indicating whether a belief or proposition is true or valid )

Learners are asked to recall how “evidence” is used in a courtroom to attempt to prove that someone is guilty, or innocent, of a crime.  Suggest they then consider an argument they may have had over politics, the needs of their neighborhood, climate change, or any controversial topic.  Ask whether they felt they could cite good evidence for their “side,” or struggled instead to make a convincing case.  Finally, discuss how the ability to find, understand, and use reliable, relevant evidence can be one of the best ways for a speaker, or writer, to gain respect, and even admiration. 

Time: 1 minute

This lesson is about using evidence found in written documents, like news articles, or other informational text” to support an argument, opinion, or claim.  

Time: 3 minutes

• View a claim statement, with key concepts or phrases highlighted
• View an article excerpt on the topic referenced in the claim
• See evidence/claim relationships highlighted
• View explanations for highlighted portions

Yellow :  These phrases support the claim that the Internet may be “a place to get lost and waste time” for many people.

Blue :  This phrase suggests scientific evidence, with words like brain “triggers” and “reward system”.  It supports the second part of the claim that one may need to use strategies to resist things that trigger something in  one’s brain. Additional activities:

1) Ask students to search the full article for more evidence.     2) Ask students to explain evidence in their own words (paraphrase): "Evidence"  statement above, paraphrased :       Content on the Internet can be very addictive.  It's designed to get our attention, then keep it, by offering     participation that makes our brains happy. 

Time: 20 minutes

Learners are asked to consider how they motivate themselves, avoid procrastination, and act to complete necessary tasks (or, adeversely, have difficulty doing these things).

Learners then:

• Write a sentence describing what they believe enables someone to successfully motivate him or herself, or (alternately) what hinders self-motivation.
• Read:   The Psychological Origins of Procrastination – and How We Can Stop Putting Things Off
• Mark passages they believe provide relevant support to their personal claim.
• Fill out the worksheet “Explain Your Evidence” with:   a) claim statement   b) quoted statement(s)   c) quote in their own words (paraphrase)   d) explanation of why quote supports their claim.

Time: 5 minutes

Instructors / learners compare worksheet responses to a “Citing Evidence” rubric.  Responses should achieve “Excellent” or "Adequate" level.  If not, learners review the lesson.

Application - Extended Time

Using examples from their own lives, students do one or more of the following:   1) Write a reflection on how they might apply the knowledge learned from the article 2) Create a “tip” sheet for peers on avoiding procrastination 3) Use their notes to participate in a discussion with peers about overcoming procrastination/motivation issues.

The articles used as a text for this lesson ( The Psychological Origins of Procrastination, and Psychological Tips for Resisting the Internet's Grip)  were found at:   https://theconversation.com/us , which has many additional articles on these, and other topics.

“Evidence” criteria from Short Response Rubric  and Checklist.   Additional materials for Grade 10 “ELA & Literacy Curriculum” from this draft New York State resource expand on persuasive writing topics.

Berkman, E. (March 1, 2016). Psychological Tips for Resisting the Internet's Grip. Retrieved from: https://theconversation.com/psychological-tips-for-resisting-the-internets-grip-52046

Berkman, E., & Miller-Ziegler, J. (October 7, 2015). The Psychological Origins of Procrastination - and How We Can Stop Putting Things Off.  The Conversation. Retrieved from: https://theconversation.com/the-psychological-origins-of-procrastination-and-how-we-can-stop-putting-things-off-47905

Public Consulting Group. Engage NY (2014). NYS Common Core ELA & Literacy Curriculum. Grade 10, Module 1, Short Response Rubric and Checklist. DRAFT.  Retrieved from: http://www.moboces.org/cms/lib09/NY01914077/Centricity/Domain/31/Grade%2010%20Module%201%20Supporting%20Materials.pdf

 “The Conversation” terms of use statement: “We believe in the free flow of information. We use a   Creative Commons Attribution NoDerivatives  licence, so you can republish our articles for free, online or in print.”

Public Consulting Group. Engage NY: p. This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License

This course content is offered by Designers for Learning under a CC Attribution  license. Content in this course can be considered under this license unless otherwise noted.         Page

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The Argument: Types of Evidence

Argumentation and evidence.

In most papers, the writer’s aim is to find a topic and make a claim about it. This claim is better known as the writer's argument. 

With it, the writer attempts to win the reader over to his/her view of the topic, or, at the very least, to show the reader a new perspective about the subject discussed. If the writer is going to make some headway with an argument, however, he/she must be able to give evidence to support the claims the paper will make. There are three main categories of evidence that are essential to gain the audience's confidence in the writer's assertions. These categories are Fact, Judgment, and Testimony.

This page explores the types of evidence used in argumentation. See also the page on  logic and argumentation .

Facts are among the best tools to involve the reader in the argument. Since facts are indisputable, the writer automatically wins the reader’s mutual agreement by utilizing them. A statement declaring, "On January 28, 1986, the shuttle Challenger exploded upon lift-off," must be accepted by the reader, since it is a historical certainty. Facts are used primarily to get the reader to stand on the writer's plane of reasoning. For instance, if a writer wanted to argue that smoking is a detriment to your health, he/she would begin by citing factual information about the large number of people who die every year from smoke-related diseases. This would then force the reader to agree with the writer on at least one point.

Facts, however, cannot carry the entire argument. It is necessary for the writer to utilize Judgments as well. These are assumptions that the writer makes about his/her subject after carefully considering the facts. For example, a writer could start by presenting certain facts about the knowledge that scientists had regarding the condition of the Challenger prior to takeoff. From these facts, the writer concludes that the disaster could have been avoided if a few scientists been willing to speak up about some unsettling findings. This would be a judgment on the writer's part. There is nothing in the history books or newspapers that can prove this assumption to be true. The success or failure of the entire argument rests on whether or not the writer can utilize adequate reasoning in coming to the right judgments.

The final type of evidence used in writing a convincing argument is Testimony. There are two types of testimony: 1) the account of an eyewitness, and 2) the judgment of an expert who has had the chance to examine and interpret the facts. Both of these lend validity to an argument. The eyewitness can supply important facts for the writer to use, and the expert can provide valuable judgments in order to give strength to the argument. For instance, in the case of the Space Shuttle Challenger, the writer might use the testimony of one of the personnel who was present at NASA meetings before the launch. The writer might also use an astrophysicist’s opinion about whether or not evidence existed before takeoff that the Shuttle was not safe to launch. 

However, the writer must exercise caution when employing these two types of testimony in his or her paper. Eyewitness accounts cannot always be reliable; no one person has an objective view of an event. Also, an expert’s opinion is not beyond dispute; another expert in the same field of study may find faulty reasoning in the first expert’s judgment. Also, the writer must be careful not to use an expert in one field to make a judgment about a subject in another. Imagine the absurdity of computer genius Bill Gates making an official statement on archeology.

Internet Resources 

>> Dartmouth Logic and Argumentation Guide

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