methods used in anthropological research

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Anthropological Research Methods Explained

Introduction.

Anthropological research methods are systematic approaches used to study human cultures and societies. These methods allow researchers to gather, analyze, and interpret data about human behavior. Understanding these methods is crucial for grasping how anthropologists explore cultural dynamics. Different types of anthropological research methods provide unique insights. Qualitative methods, such as interviews and ethnography, focus on in-depth understanding. These approaches capture the nuances of human experience and social interactions. Quantitative methods involve statistical analysis and numerical data. Researchers use surveys and experiments to identify patterns and correlations within populations. This approach offers a broader perspective on cultural phenomena. Comparative analysis examines similarities and differences among cultures. Archival research uses historical documents and artifacts to study past societies. Each method has its advantages and challenges, making them suitable for various research questions. By understanding these research methods, readers can appreciate the complexity of anthropological studies. These methods contribute to a comprehensive understanding of human behavior and cultural diversity. Exploring these approaches equips individuals with tools to analyze and interpret social dynamics effectively. This foundational knowledge sets the stage for deeper engagement with the field of anthropology.

Participant Observation

Defining participant observation.

Participant observation is a qualitative research method used in anthropology. Researchers immerse themselves in a community to understand its culture and behaviors. This approach combines observation and participation, allowing researchers to gain in-depth insights. By interacting with participants, researchers gather richer data than through surveys alone. This method helps anthropologists explore social dynamics and cultural practices.

The Role of the Researcher as a Participant

In participant observation, the researcher plays a dual role. They act as both an observer and a participant in the community. This involvement allows them to build rapport and trust with participants. The researcher engages in daily activities, rituals, and events. Through this engagement, they gain a deeper understanding of the community’s values and beliefs. However, the researcher must remain aware of their influence on the environment. Their presence can change participants’ behavior, impacting the authenticity of the observations.

Benefits of Participant Observation

Participant observation offers several advantages for anthropological research. First, it provides firsthand experience of cultural practices. Researchers can witness events as they unfold, leading to a more nuanced understanding. Second, it enables researchers to collect data that may not emerge through interviews or surveys. Participants may share insights during informal conversations that they wouldn’t during structured interviews. Third, this method allows researchers to explore the context of behaviors and social interactions. They can observe how individuals relate to one another and their environment.

Limitations of Participant Observation

Despite its benefits, participant observation has limitations. One significant challenge is the researcher’s subjectivity. Their personal experiences and biases can influence observations. Additionally, gaining access to certain communities may prove difficult. Researchers may face challenges in establishing trust, especially in sensitive or closed cultures. Moreover, the time commitment required for immersion can be extensive. Researchers often spend months or years in the field, which may not be feasible for all studies.

Examples of Studies Using Participant Observation

Numerous anthropological studies have employed participant observation. One classic example is Margaret Mead’s research in Samoa. She lived among Samoan girls to explore their social interactions and cultural norms. Another notable study is Paul Farmer’s work in Haiti. Farmer’s immersion in Haitian communities provided insights into health disparities and social justice issues. These examples illustrate the depth of understanding participant observation can provide. Participant observation serves as a vital method in anthropological research. It allows researchers to engage deeply with communities and gather rich, contextual data. Despite its challenges, the insights gained from this method remain invaluable in understanding human behavior and culture.

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Interviews as a research method

An interviews serve as a crucial research method in anthropology. They allow researchers to gather in-depth insights from participants. By engaging directly with individuals, researchers can uncover unique perspectives and personal experiences.

Types of Interviews (structured, semi-structured, and unstructured interviews)

Interviews can be classified into three main types: structured, semi-structured, and unstructured. Structured interviews follow a strict format. Researchers ask predetermined questions in a specific order. This approach ensures consistency and makes analysis easier. However, it may limit the depth of responses. Semi-structured interviews combine structure with flexibility. Researchers prepare a set of open-ended questions but allow for additional inquiries. This method encourages participants to elaborate on their thoughts. It strikes a balance between guided conversation and open dialogue. Unstructured interviews are the most flexible type. Researchers start with a broad topic and allow participants to lead the discussion. This approach can yield rich, nuanced data. However, it may be more challenging to analyze and compare responses.

Building Rapport with Participants

Establishing rapport with participants is essential in anthropological research. A strong relationship can lead to more honest and detailed responses. When participants feel comfortable, they share their thoughts openly. This openness enhances the quality of data collected. To build rapport, researchers should approach participants with respect and empathy. They should create a welcoming environment that encourages dialogue. Active listening is key—show genuine interest in participants’ experiences and perspectives. A warm, friendly demeanor can foster trust and openness.

Tips for Conducting Effective Interviews

Conducting effective interviews requires careful preparation and execution. First, researchers should develop clear objectives for the interview. Understanding the purpose helps shape the questions and the direction of the conversation. Next, prepare a list of questions in advance. This list should include both open-ended and follow-up questions. Open-ended questions encourage elaboration, while follow-ups delve deeper into specific topics. Additionally, choose an appropriate setting for the interview. A quiet, comfortable space can help participants feel at ease. Avoid distractions and interruptions to maintain focus during the conversation. During the interview, remain flexible. While it’s essential to stick to the main topics, allow the discussion to flow naturally. This flexibility can uncover unexpected insights and rich data. Finally, record the interview with participants’ consent. Audio or video recordings help ensure accuracy during data analysis. Transcribing the conversation can facilitate a deeper understanding of the participants’ perspectives. Interviews are a vital method in anthropological research. By understanding different interview types, building rapport, and following effective practices, researchers can gather valuable insights from participants. These insights contribute significantly to the richness of anthropological knowledge.

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Defining surveys as a research method

Surveys are a common research method in anthropology. They gather data from a large group of participants. Surveys can provide quantitative insights into cultural practices, beliefs, and social behaviors. Researchers design surveys to assess specific questions or hypotheses.

How Surveys Are Used in Anthropology

Anthropologists use surveys to study diverse populations. They often combine surveys with other methods, such as interviews or observations. This mixed-methods approach enriches the understanding of cultural phenomena. Surveys allow researchers to reach a broader audience, enhancing the generalizability of findings. In anthropology, surveys can explore various topics. They can examine public opinions on social issues, cultural practices, or economic behaviors. Researchers can design surveys to capture demographic information, such as age, gender, and socioeconomic status. This data helps anthropologists understand how these factors influence cultural dynamics.

Designing and Distributing Surveys

The process of designing surveys involves several key steps. First, researchers must define clear objectives for the survey. These objectives guide the selection of questions and the overall structure of the survey. Next, researchers develop questions that align with their objectives. Questions can be open-ended or closed-ended. Closed-ended questions yield quantitative data, while open-ended questions provide qualitative insights. Striking a balance between the two types can enhance the survey’s effectiveness. After designing the survey, researchers must consider the distribution method. Surveys can be administered in person, via mail, or online. Online surveys have gained popularity due to their convenience and accessibility. Researchers must choose the method that best reaches their target population.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Surveys

Surveys offer several advantages in anthropological research. They allow for data collection from large samples, increasing the reliability of results. Surveys also enable researchers to gather quantitative data efficiently. This data can reveal trends and patterns across diverse populations. However, surveys have limitations. The quality of data depends on how well questions are designed. Poorly worded questions can lead to misleading results. Additionally, surveys may lack the depth of qualitative methods, such as interviews. Researchers may miss nuanced insights that arise from personal interactions. Another challenge is participant response bias. Participants may provide socially desirable answers instead of honest responses. This bias can skew the findings and affect the validity of the research. Surveys are a valuable method in anthropological research. They provide a means to gather extensive data efficiently. Understanding how to design and distribute surveys effectively is crucial. Despite their limitations, surveys offer significant insights into cultural dynamics and human behavior. Anthropologists can enhance their research by integrating surveys with other methods to achieve a comprehensive understanding of their study populations.

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Ethnography

Define ethnography as a research method .

Ethnography is a qualitative research method in anthropology. It focuses on understanding cultural practices and social interactions. Ethnographers immerse themselves in the communities they study. This immersion allows them to gain deep insights into everyday life.

The Immersive Nature of Ethnographic Research

The immersive nature of ethnographic research sets it apart from other methods. Ethnographers often live within the community for extended periods. This long-term engagement fosters trust and rapport with participants. By participating in daily activities, researchers observe cultural practices firsthand. They gain an insider’s perspective that enriches their understanding. Ethnography emphasizes the importance of context. Researchers analyze how social, economic, and political factors influence behaviors and beliefs. This comprehensive approach helps uncover the complexities of cultural dynamics. Ethnographers often keep detailed field notes during their observations. These notes capture nuances that might be overlooked in other research methods.

Data Collection through Observation and Interviews

Ethnographers collect data primarily through two methods: observation and interviews. Observation involves watching and documenting everyday life in the community. Ethnographers take note of rituals, interactions, and social structures. This firsthand observation provides invaluable insights into cultural norms. Interviews complement observational data. Ethnographers conduct both formal and informal interviews with community members. These conversations can reveal personal experiences and beliefs. Researchers often use open-ended questions to encourage participants to share in-depth stories. Combining observation and interviews enhances the richness of the data collected. Ethnographers can validate their findings by comparing insights from both methods. This triangulation strengthens the credibility of their research.

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Examples of Classic Ethnographic Studies

Several classic ethnographic studies exemplify the method’s depth and impact. One notable example is Margaret Mead’s work in Samoa. Her study, “Coming of Age in Samoa,” explored adolescence and cultural influences. Mead’s findings challenged Western assumptions about development and socialization. Another influential study is Bronislaw Malinowski’s research in the Trobriand Islands. His work, “Argonauts of the Western Pacific,” emphasized participant observation. Malinowski’s immersive approach revealed the complexities of the Trobriand Islanders’ social life. Clifford Geertz’s “Deep Play: Notes on the Balinese Cockfight” is another essential ethnographic work. Geertz analyzed the cultural significance of cockfighting in Bali. His detailed descriptions provided a deeper understanding of Balinese society. Ethnography is a powerful research method in anthropology. Its immersive approach allows researchers to uncover the intricacies of cultural practices. By collecting data through observation and interviews, ethnographers gain rich insights. Classic studies by Mead, Malinowski, and Geertz highlight the method’s significance in understanding human behavior and society. Ethnography continues to be a vital tool for exploring cultural diversity and complexity.

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Comparative Analysis

Defining comparative analysis in anthropology.

Comparative analysis is a key research method in anthropology. It involves examining and contrasting different cultures or societies. By identifying similarities and differences, researchers gain valuable insights. This method enhances our understanding of human behavior across diverse contexts.

Comparing Different Cultures or Societies

Researchers use comparative analysis to study various aspects of cultures. They may compare social structures, rituals, beliefs, or economic systems. By analyzing these elements, researchers can identify patterns and trends. This method helps uncover universal themes in human behavior. For example, anthropologists might compare family structures in different societies. They can examine how cultural norms influence family dynamics. Such comparisons reveal the diversity of family arrangements and the values underpinning them. Researchers can also compare religious practices across cultures. By studying similarities and differences in beliefs, they gain insights into cultural expressions of spirituality. Comparative analysis helps anthropologists understand how culture shapes individual experiences and social interactions.

The Importance of Cultural Relativism

Cultural relativism plays a crucial role in comparative analysis. It encourages researchers to understand cultures on their own terms. By avoiding ethnocentrism, researchers gain a more nuanced perspective. This approach fosters empathy and appreciation for cultural diversity. Cultural relativism allows researchers to analyze practices without bias. It encourages them to consider the historical and social contexts of each culture. This understanding prevents misinterpretations and promotes respect for different ways of life. When researchers apply cultural relativism, they challenge their assumptions. This openness leads to more accurate and meaningful comparisons. Recognizing that no culture is superior helps researchers maintain objectivity in their analyses.

Drawing Conclusions from Comparative Studies

Researchers draw conclusions from comparative studies by synthesizing their findings. They analyze data to identify recurring themes or unique characteristics. This process involves critical thinking and a careful examination of evidence. Once researchers identify patterns, they formulate hypotheses. These hypotheses help explain cultural phenomena observed during comparisons. For instance, a researcher might conclude that communal agricultural practices influence social cohesion in certain societies. Additionally, researchers must consider the limitations of their studies. They acknowledge that cultural contexts can vary significantly. Drawing broad conclusions from limited data may lead to inaccuracies. Thus, researchers should approach their findings with caution. Comparative analysis is an essential method in anthropology. It allows researchers to explore diverse cultures and societies through systematic comparisons. Cultural relativism enhances the depth of these analyses by promoting understanding and respect. By drawing thoughtful conclusions, researchers contribute to our broader knowledge of humanity. This method highlights the complexity and richness of human cultures across the globe.

Archival Research

Defining archival research in anthropology .

Archival research is a vital method in anthropology. It involves analyzing historical documents, photographs, and artifacts. This approach helps researchers understand past cultures and societies. Archival research provides insights that are often unavailable through other methods.

Use of Historical Documents, Photographs, and Artifacts

Researchers utilize various types of materials in archival research. Historical documents, such as letters, diaries, and government records, provide context. These documents reveal social structures, beliefs, and everyday life in past societies. Photographs offer visual evidence of cultural practices and social interactions. They capture moments in time, providing a glimpse into historical contexts. Researchers analyze these images to interpret cultural meanings and significance. Artifacts are another essential component of archival research. These physical objects, such as tools, clothing, or pottery, reveal information about past human behavior. By examining artifacts, researchers can understand technological advancements and cultural changes. Combining these materials enriches the understanding of a particular culture or society. Archival research allows anthropologists to piece together narratives from various sources. This holistic approach deepens insights into historical contexts.

Challenges of Conducting Archival Research

Conducting archival research presents several challenges. Accessing materials can be difficult, as not all documents are available to researchers. Some archives may have restrictions, limiting what can be studied. Another challenge is the potential for incomplete records. Historical documents may be missing or damaged, leading to gaps in knowledge. Researchers must navigate these limitations while interpreting the available data. Additionally, understanding the context of documents is crucial. Researchers must consider the perspectives of those who created the materials. This awareness helps prevent misinterpretations and enhances the analysis. Researchers must also be cautious about bias in historical records. Many documents reflect the views of dominant groups, overlooking marginalized voices. This bias can skew the understanding of historical events and cultural practices.

Examples of Studies Using Archival Research Methods

Several notable studies have employed archival research methods. One example is James Frazer’s work, “The Golden Bough.”

He examined ancient texts and folklore to explore human beliefs in magic and religion. Another influential study is “The Search for the “Primitive” in American Anthropology” by Karen Ho. Ho analyzed historical documents to investigate the evolution of anthropological thought. Her research highlighted how biases shaped early anthropological narratives. Furthermore, the work of historian and anthropologist William Cronon in “Nature’s Metropolis” exemplifies archival research. Cronon used historical documents to explore the relationship between Chicago and its surrounding environment. His study revealed how urban development influenced ecological changes. Archival research is a significant method in anthropology. By analyzing historical documents, photographs, and artifacts, researchers uncover valuable insights. Despite challenges like access and bias, this method enriches our understanding of the past. Notable studies demonstrate the power of archival research in revealing the complexities of human cultures and societies.

Quantitative Analysis

Defining quantitative analysis in anthropology.

Quantitative analysis is a crucial research method in anthropology. It involves collecting and analyzing numerical data to understand cultural phenomena. This method helps researchers identify patterns and relationships within data sets. By employing statistical techniques, anthropologists can derive meaningful insights from their research.

Use of Statistical Methods in Anthropological Research

Researchers use various statistical methods in anthropological studies. These methods include descriptive statistics, inferential statistics, and multivariate analysis. Descriptive statistics summarize data, providing an overview of key characteristics. Researchers use measures such as mean, median, and mode to summarize findings. Inferential statistics allow researchers to draw conclusions about populations based on sample data. Researchers use hypothesis testing to determine whether observed patterns are statistically significant. Multivariate analysis helps explore relationships among multiple variables simultaneously. This method reveals how different factors interact and influence outcomes.

Analyzing Numerical Data to Draw Conclusions

Researchers analyze numerical data using software tools like SPSS or R. These tools enable them to perform complex statistical analyses efficiently. After data collection, researchers clean and prepare the data for analysis. They check for errors or missing values to ensure accuracy. Once the data is ready, researchers apply statistical tests. These tests help them identify trends, correlations, and differences among groups. For example, researchers might analyze survey data to assess correlations between income and education levels. After analyzing the data, researchers interpret the results. They consider the implications of their findings in relation to cultural contexts. This interpretation helps draw meaningful conclusions about the studied phenomena.

Benefits of Using Quantitative Analysis in Anthropology

Quantitative analysis offers several benefits in anthropological research. First, it provides a systematic and objective approach to data collection. This objectivity reduces bias and enhances the reliability of findings. Second, quantitative analysis allows researchers to work with large data sets. This capability enables them to generalize findings across broader populations. By using statistical methods, researchers can uncover trends that may not be apparent through qualitative analysis alone. Third, quantitative analysis facilitates comparison across different cultures or societies. Researchers can apply similar statistical methods to analyze various data sets. This approach helps identify cross-cultural similarities and differences. Finally, the use of quantitative analysis enhances the validity of research findings. Statistical significance indicates that observed patterns are unlikely to occur by chance. This rigor strengthens the overall conclusions drawn from the research. Quantitative analysis is a vital method in anthropology. It employs statistical techniques to analyze numerical data, providing valuable insights into cultural phenomena. By utilizing this method, researchers can identify patterns, draw conclusions, and enhance the rigor of their studies. Quantitative analysis ultimately contributes to a deeper understanding of human behavior and cultural dynamics.

In this blog post, we explored various anthropological research methods. We discussed interviews, surveys, ethnography, comparative analysis, archival research, and quantitative analysis. Each method plays a unique role in understanding cultures and societies. Understanding these research methods is crucial for comprehending anthropological studies. They provide valuable insights into human behavior and cultural dynamics. Each method offers distinct advantages and challenges, making them suitable for different research questions. We encourage readers to explore these research methods further. Engaging with various approaches enriches our understanding of anthropology and its diverse applications. Consider reading comprehensive guides on anthropological research methods. Resources focused on qualitative and quantitative methods can enhance your understanding. Familiarizing yourself with these methods will deepen your knowledge of anthropology. By exploring different research approaches, you can gain insights into how anthropologists study cultures. Understanding these methodologies fosters appreciation for the complexities of human behavior. It allows for a more informed perspective on cultural differences. Understanding anthropological research methods is essential for anyone interested in this field. They reveal the intricacies of human societies and enhance our understanding of diverse cultures.

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Cultural Anthropology/Anthropological Methods

Human cultural variation.

Cultural interactions result in both progressive and aggressive interactions due to the evolution of those cultures being uninfluenced by one another. What may be considered good etiquette in one culture may be considered an offensive gesture in another. As this occurs constantly, cultures push each other to change.The biological variations between humans are summarized in the ideas of natural selection and evolution . Human variation is based on the principle that there is variation in traits that result for recombination of genes from sexual reproduction. These traits are variable and can be passed down generation to generation. It also relies on differential reproduction, the idea that the environment can't support unlimited population growth because not all individuals get to reproduce to their full potential.

An example of human variation can be found with a cline. A cline is a genetic variation between populations of species that are isolated in their reproduction (such as skin color variation in humans). Human skin color variation is a selective adaptation that relates to the populations' proximity to the equator. Because of pigmentation characteristics within the human population, a system and term emerged to categorize the differing variations. This category is recognized as race . Populations of humans in equatorial regions have selective advantages as a result of their darker skin pigmentation, whereas populations in more northern environments have less selective pressure to evolve darker pigmentation and have lighter skin. Other clines include differences in stature and hair type.

Origins of Ethnography

Ethnography is a core modern research method used in Anthropology as well as in other modern social sciences. Ethnography is the case study of one culture, subculture, or micro-culture made a the researcher immersing themself in said culture.

Before ethnography, immersive research, the prevailing method was unilineal. This led to colonizers feeling able to set the rules for what is a "modern" or "primitive" culture and used these self-made justifications in order to rule over new colonies in the name of advancement for their people. This view came into question with Anthropologists like Franz Boas, offering the multilinear model for cultural evolution we have today. This model closer, reflects the realities of different cultures across the world advancing in separate ways and highlights the impossibility to call one culture "primitive" in relation to another. These cultures do not evolve from one another but evolved separately from each other into other cultures.

A large part of the issue with early Anthropology was a reliance on second-party information while lacking any first-hand research of cultures. "Armchair Anthropologists" would gather information from military deployments, merchants, and missionaries rather than making the first-hand contact. Armchair Anthropologists usually refers to late 19th century and early 20th century scholars coming to conclusions without going through the usual anthropology motions—fieldwork or lab work. They would then create wild theories based on these accounts. This led to a high degree of bias against these cultures, more so than firsthand research, and were not scientific in the way Anthropology is today. These biases turned into stereotypes which are still prevalent today. This form of research drove much of the colonial primitive culture narrative and necessitated the adaptation of Ethnography.

Ethnography, or the immersive method of case study research, has to lead to the dispelling of rumor and a much deeper understanding of cultures through great effort. This is seen very clearly in Bright Dale's research on a Tobagonian Village, [ 1 ] titled Lives in-between Encountering Men in a Tobagonian Village. To begin, he clearly states his bias, being a male researcher and dealing primarily with the males of that society due to a highly gendered culture found there. He explains with great care that he is not searching for what men "do" but what they "say and do to be men." His goal with the research project was to show the value of an ethnographic research project, along with his experiences within this culture and the limitations he faced in that research. He had limitations both being an outsider and being male, only being able to see how one-half of these people portrayed their culture and even then through the lens of an outsider with his own biases, stated as clearly as possible within the paper. This is the value of Ethnography, it allows researchers to further understand their research while remaining as unbiased as possible, highlighting weaknesses and need for further research from people of different genders and backgrounds.

An Ethnographic Analogy is a method for inferring the use or meaning of an ancient site or artifact based on observations and accounts of its use by living people.

We can infer the use of an ancient tool by seeing how similar-looking tools are used in existing or recent societies. By analogy we can hypothesize the same use for the old tool.

Fieldwork Methods

In anthropology there are several types of fieldwork methods that are used while conducting research. Below we will go more into depth with several fieldwork methods that are used.

Observational Methods

The observational method is viewed as the least invasive method where the anthropologist minimally integrates themselves into the society they are studying and gathers data through verbal communication while attempting to remain non-intrusive of the culture.

This group of methods focuses on community interaction through language. It usually entails many open ended interviews with participants who are members of a group being studied. The researcher strives to learn as much as they can about the history of the community as well as the individuals within it in order to gain a full understanding of how their culture functions. Interviews can take place individually or with focus groups within the community based on age, status, gender, and other factors that contribute to differences within the community.

This type of research often strives to create an open dialogue, called a dialectic, in which information flows back and forth between researcher and subject. Think of this situation as a conversation between two people about homework or an upcoming exam. This dialectic poses a challenge to the objectivity of socially produced data. The challenge is dealt with through reflection on the inter-subjective creation of meaning. This leads anthropologists to value reflexive abilities in their ethnographic writing. Because many anthropologists also hope to help the communities they work with to make change on their own terms within the confines of their own culture, in some cases objectivity is abandoned in favor of community based activism and social change.

Participant Observation

Participant observation is a method for anthropological Fieldwork, used to collect data such that the anthropologist must create an intimate relationship between themselves and the culture studied. This method requires that an anthropologist participate in a social event that is part of a specific culture. This includes, but is not limited to, observing members of a culture by taking notes, eating the food that is provided, and participating in festivities. The goal of participant observation is to be involved in the culture like a member of that society, all while observing and studying the culture. An example of participation observation would be if an anthropologist went to a Native American Tribal gathering and took notes on the energy and traditions they were being shown. This anthropologist could participate in things like face painting or songs, and eat the food that the Natives eat. The information gathered in this observation is then recorded and reflected upon to gain further insight into the culture being studied. This observation method helps the anthropologist develop a deeper rapport with the people of the culture and can help others understand their culture further. This experience may result in the individuals opening up more to the anthropologist which allows them to understand more than an etic point of view of the culture.

Non-Participant Observation

In contrast to participant observation, non-participant observation is the anthropological method of collecting data by entering within a community but with limited interaction with the people within the culture. This anthropologist can be thought of as a fly on the wall. An etic approach that researchers often use to examine the details of how the subjects interact with one another and the environment around them. Detailed research such as body behavior (e.g. eye gaze, facial expression), speech styles (e.g. pitch) can be recorded through the nonparticipant method, but usually the emic approach is preferred when observing social context. An example of data collected through non-participant research would be the an estimation of how often women in a household wear high heels due to how worn out the carpet is.

The non-participant observation, although effective in providing some research, has limitations. One being, the observer affect. This is caused by the presence of the researcher having an influence over the participants' actions. The researcher may use systematic approaches of field notes, sampling and data to ensure and increase comfortable interactions. While using the non-participant observation method, the researcher's opinions may oppose that of the participant's on a certain issue. The only solution to this problem and to have a fuller and unbiased take on the research is to use both non-participant and participant method.

Ethnographic Method

Cultural data assumes the form of directly observable material items, individual behaviors, performances, ideas and arrangements that exist only in people's heads. From the perspective of the culture concept, anthropologists must first treat all these elements as symbols within a coherent system and must record observations with attention to the cultural context and the meanings assigned by the culture's practitioners. These demands are met through two major research techniques: participant observation and key informant interviewing.

After the initial orientation or entry period, which may take 3 months or longer, the researcher follows a more systematic program of formal interviews involving questions related to research hypotheses and specialized topics. Several different methods of selecting informants are possible. Usually, a few key informants are selected for in-depth sessions, since the investigation of cultural patterns usually calls for lengthy and repeated open-ended interviews. Selection of such a small number does not allow for strict assurance of a representative sample, so the anthropologist must be careful to choose subjects who are well informed and reliable. Ethnographic researchers will also train informants to systematically report cultural data and recognize significant cultural elements and interconnections as the interview sequences unfold.

Key informant selection is known as judgment sampling and is particularly important for the kind of qualitative research that characterizes ethnography. Anthropologists will very frequently also need to carry out quantitative research from which statistically validated inferences can be drawn. Accordingly, they must construct an either larger random sample or a total population census for more narrowly focused interviewing according to a closed questionnaire design. Other important quantitative data might include direct measurement of such items as farm size, crop yield, daily caloric intake, or even blood pressure, depending on the anthropologist's research focus. Aside from written observation and records, researchers will often provide ethnographic representations in other forms, such as collected artifacts, photographs, tape recordings, films, and videos. it compares and analyses the characteristic of different people and relationship between them ( compare culture, social, behaviors)

Comparative Method

Since the beginning of anthropological studies, the Comparative Method has been a way to allow a systematic comparison of information and data from multiple sources. It is a common approach for testing multiple hypotheses on subjects including co-evolution of cultures, the adaptation of cultural practices to the environment, and kinship terms in local languages from around the world. The comparative method, may seem like an outdated form of fieldwork information gathering, however this method is still quite prevalent in modern day anthropological research. The use of this form of information gathering is intended to compare globalization, which uses a version of this method called multi-sited Ethnography by participant observation gathered from many different social settings. Another form of the comparative research method is shown through the Human Relations Area Files , which collects and organizes ethnographic texts from hundreds of societies all over the world. These files cover topics ranging from types of kinship systems, to trading practices found in all of human culture.

Anthropologists Ruth Mace--an anthropologist who specializes in evolutionary ecology--and Mark Pagel explore the comparative method of anthropological research in their article The Comparative Method in Anthropology . They explain how in the past decade there have been many expansions in other branches of anthropology, including cultural diversity as a scientific endeavor. This is when the comparative method is used by those interested in cultural evolution and by those who study other human sciences. However, "cultures cannot be treated as independent for purposes of investigating cross culture trends," therefore they must instead be studied in relation to one another: How two or more cultures grow together, or how they are researched together has the ability to outline the entire premise of the comparative method. Having been used for hundreds of years, this method is still one of the main forms of research for anthropologists all over the world.

Reflexivity

Reflexivity is the awareness of the researcher of the effect they may be having on the research. It involves a constant awareness and assessment of the researcher's own contribution to and influence on the researcher's subjects and their findings. This principle was perhaps first thought of by William Thomas, as the "Thomas Theorem". Fieldwork in cultural anthropology is a reflexive experience. Anthropologists must constantly be aware that the information they are gathering may be skewed by their ethical opinions, or political standings. Even an anthropologists' presence in that culture can affect the results they receive. Reflexive fieldwork must retain a respect for detailed, accurate information gathering while also paying precise attention to the ethical and political context of research, the background of the researchers, and the full cooperation of informants. In our everyday lives reflexivity is used to better understand ourselves by comparing our culture to others. For example, when someone talks about their religion, you may immediately disagree with specific aspects of their religion because you have not grown up believing it as they have. By being reflexive, one would be able to recognize their bias. Some anthropologists have taken this method to the extreme, Margaret Wilson, for example, wrote her book 'Dance Lest We all Fall Down' in a reflexive biographical manner; this accounted for her inability to fully integrate into Brazilian society. [ 2 ]

Intersubjectivity

Intersubjectivity is the realization that knowledge about other people emerges from people's relationships with and perceptions of each other. The concept was first introduced by the principal founder of phenomenology, Edmund Husserl, and creates a "theoretical frame for thinking about the ways in which humans interpret, organize, and reproduce particular forms of social life and social cognition". Intersubjectivity is defined by five key principles. The first is that intersubjectivity is not limited to the concept of matching one's mental state with another’s mental state. Instead of a one-way transaction, intersubjectivity should be seen more as a type of mutual understanding. The second claim of Husserl's dissertation is that intersubjectivity is founded on the principle that we all share the same world, so that if two individuals were to "trade places", it would be present itself in the same way. Through empathetic insight, human beings achieve Platzwechsel , which is a term used in chess to mean "place exchange". The third claim is that intersubjectivity creates a synthesis of worldviews through the usage of empathy. Although there may be different perspectives in the relationship presented, the collective world is assumed to be the same through the bilateral insight of shared knowledge. The fourth claim is that intersubjectivity must precede meaningful interaction, as well as " The possibility of reflection on the self, discovery of the ego, capacity for performing any epoché, and the possibility of all communication and of establishing a communicative surrounding world as well". In other words, intersubjectivity is not the result of communication, instead it is the condition required for it to occur. Finally, the fifth claim is that intersubjectivity is the principle by which anthropologists must view their work. In order to properly create an account of a group of people, one must develop relationships with others and deduce perceptions through experience.

Participatory Action Research

This specific method requires a community commitment to change. It occurs in five steps:

• Education on the Process or Creating a Dialogue
• Collective Investigation
• Collective Interpretation
• Collective Action
• Transformation: Self-Determination and Empowerment

Because of the intrinsic qualities of this type of research (ideally being conducted by people with close ties or membership of a community), it is usually very applicable to situations in the community. The research is an analysis of the community's behavior by the community's members. Not only are they by necessity, motivated to work on the problem, but they will already have significant rapport with other community members which allows them to better address and analyze it. The dynamic attributes of the process allow constant reevaluation and change. This cyclic or regularly repeated tendencies can develop into healthy adaptation patterns in the community without outside contributions or aid.

Triangulation Method

The triangulation method is the "combination of methodologies in the study of the same phenomenon". [ 3 ] It is used to investigate a single topic through individual perspectives or multiple methodologies. It is usually the preferred way to research because it can combine all methods of researching to get the best results. It uses qualitative and quantitative practices together. The qualitative practice gives the triangulation method its inquiry results. The quantitative practice gives it the validation results. It combines a scientific approach with an observational approach. According to the Administrative Science Quarterly, it is a "vehicle for cross-validation when two or more distinct methods are found to be congruent and yield comparable data". [ 4 ] The foundation of triangulation relies on one form of research being weak and the other form stepping up to make up for it. Relying on one form of research can create a bias. The general problem with measurement data, is the individual or group being researched tends to tell you what you want to hear instead of the full truth. Triangulation helps prevent bias by giving the researcher the opportunity to participate in individual, self-reported and observational methods with those being researched. Sampling bias generally means that the researcher doesn't have time to cover the entire group they are focusing on. Or they focus on what they think the important parts of a society are and don't study the less important aspects. Triangulation can combine phone research, face-to-face interviews, and online surveys to ensure that the researcher is getting the most accurate results. In all, the triangulation method for fieldwork can combine all aspects of research to create the most accurate and detailed results, taking different perspectives and various sources to culminate into the most accurate model or a culture.

Types of Analysis

Qualitative vs. quantitative analysis.

Quantitative research can be represented numerically, whereas Qualitative data cannot.

Quantitative research is more interested in hard data procured through things like surveys, polls, and censuses. This type of research is interested in things like the percentage of people interviewed that agree with one statement versus another, the number of people in a culture that belong to a certain organization, or how many people in a country speak the native language versus how many are bilingual or only speak a foreign language. This method of research usually requires a large random sample group. It is totally concerned with the hard evidence(quantity)through statistics and recorded happenings, participants, and locations.

Qualitative research is typically descriptive, or anecdotal, and does not lend itself to the analysis of quantitative data. Qualitative research is in-depth research that seeks to understand why something happens the way it does. In anthropology, qualitative research includes participating as well as observing. It often crosses disciplinary boundaries and strays from a single subject, or variable being studied. Due to the specific rapport required to obtain qualitative data, it generally requires a smaller sample size.

Positivist Approach

Made popular during the late 18th century, this was the primary anthropological method used until the 1970s. It is based around the central idea of positivism, a theory saying that theology and metaphysics are earlier imperfect modes of knowledge and that positive knowledge is based on natural phenomena with their properties and relations as verified by the scientific method. [1] The main goal of a positivist approach is to produce objective knowledge, which is knowledge about humanity that is true for all people in all times and places. The ideal positivist approach would occur with a physical scientist in a lab, producing concrete results. Anthropologists adapted this method to their own use by testing hypotheses in different cultures under similar conditions. This method was very successful in recording previously unknown data about different peoples, but it was often objective facts about a way of life in which the people of the culture at question were regarded more as lab subjects than actual human beings. Eventually this method was adapted into the reflexive method, to better demonstrate the relationships that exist within communities and the anthropologists own interactions with the informants.

The positivist approach requires the use of the scientific method. A researcher makes an observation about a social behavior or condition, constructs a hypothesis as to the reason or outcome of the observation, tests the hypothesis and then analyzes the results. [2]

Ethnographic Analysis

Spradley describes ethnography as different from deductive types of social research in that the five steps of ethnographic research: selecting a problem, collecting data, analyzing data, formulating hypotheses, and writing. All five steps happen simultaneously (p. 93-94).

In his book, Spradley describes four types of ethnographic analysis that basically build on each other. The first type of analysis is domain analysis, which is “a search for the larger units of cultural knowledge” (p. 94). The other kinds of analysis are taxonomic analysis, componential analysis, and theme analysis.

All of Spradley’s theories about ethnographic analysis hinge on his belief that researchers should be searching for the meaning that participants make of their lives. These meanings are expressed through symbols, which can be words, but can also be nonverbal cues. However, because this book is about analyzing interviews, Spradley focuses on analyzing the spoken words of the participants. He explains that words are symbols that represent some kind of meaning for an individual, and each symbol has three parts: the symbol itself, what the symbol refers to, and the relationship between the symbol and the referent. Thus, the word computer can be a symbol. It refers to many things, including an individual's own personal computer. Thus, a computer is a kind of computer in the mind, or the idea of a computer, and this shows the relationship between the symbol (computer) and the referent (an actual physical computer).

Domain analysis

A domain is a “symbolic category that includes other categories”. The category of computers is a domain that includes not only a laptop, but all the Dells, Toshibas, iMacs, and IBMs in the world. These all share the same relationship because they are all kinds of computers. There are three elements to a domain. First, the cover term, which in this example is the word “computer”. Second, there are included terms, which are all the types of computers just listed. Finally, there is the single, unifying semantic relationship, which is the idea that “X, Y, and Z are all kinds of A”.

When anthropologists complete a domain analysis, they are gaining an understanding of how people place objects within different domains. In other words how does a person, family, or culture categorize the world around them. This information can be gathered is several ways. Strict inclusion ("what is a Macbook, a computer), Domain analysis, and questioning the categorization are methods of domain analysis. To revert to the previous example, if you agree that Macs are kinds of computers, you could test this hypothesis by making a question out of this semantic statement; “Are there different kinds of computers?” You could ask a participant, and based on their answer, you would know if the cover term, included terms, and semantic relationship that you identified were correct. You could then probe with more questions like, “Why are Macs a kind of computer?” or “In what way are Macs a kind of computer?”

Taxonomic Analysis

Taxonomic Analysis is a search for the way that cultural domains are organised. Building upon the first type of analysis, this form of research is best defined as the classification of data in form x is a kind of y (D'Andrade, 92). Used largely for the organization and grouping of plant and animal species, the taxonomic analysis is not focused on the features of an organism but rather the variable genetic differences that define them. Taxonomic Analysis usually involves drawing a graphical interpretation of the ways in which the individual participants move, form groups, and pattern the structure of a conversation. For example, scientists can refer to the common chimpanzee using the taxonomy pan troglodyte ( which is the ITIS report that has qualifications of all known mammals) and make specific references to that species without fear of error in their classification and use of data.

Chapter Glossary of Key Terms

Ruth Mace: An anthropologist who studies evolutionary ecology of human demography.

Intersubjectivity: The realization that knowledge about other people emerges out of people's relationships with and perceptions of each other.

Cline: The changing of species over time. Focus Group: A demographically diverse group of people assembled to participate in a guided discussion about a particular thing before it is released. Cyclic: Regularly repeated.

• ↑ Dale, Bright. "Lives In-between Encountering Men in a Tobagonian Village." Anthrobase. Bright Dale, 2004. Web. 26 Nov. 2016. < http://www.anthrobase.com/Txt/D/Dale-B_01.htm >.
• ↑ 'Dance Lest We All Fall Down' Margaret Wilson
• ↑ Administrative Science Quarterly, First Edition, Vol. 24, No. 4, Qualitative Methodology (Dec. 1979).

^ "Positivism." Def. 1. Merriam Webster's Collegiate Dictionary. 11th ed. 2003.

^ Bourgois, Philip, In Search of Respect: Selling Crack in El Barrio Cambridge University Press, 1995.

^"Emic and Etic." Wikipedia. Wikimedia Foundation, n.d. Web. 29 Nov. 2016.

^Liu, F., & Maitlis, S. (2010). Nonparticipant Observation. In Albert J. Mills, G. Durepos, & E. Wiebe (Eds.), Encyclopedia of Case Study Research. (pp. 610–612). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications.

^ D'Andrade, Roy. "The Development of Cognitive Anthropology." 1995 92. 10 Mar 2009 http://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=2QCWe2r-pvwC&oi=fnd&pg=PR12&dq=taxonomic+analysis+anthropology&ots=Vwe01uBe3l&sig=2EfRTfVyeZZyfOoIRHQwxase2K0#PPP1,M1

← History of Anthropological Theory  ·  Communication and Language →

^ Alessandro Duranti, Husserl, inter-subjectivity and anthropology University of California, Los Angeles, USA, 2015. http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/1463499610370517

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Research methods.

Social science involves the study of people. Social research methods are based on a systematic approach to studying social phenomena. Social sciences include anthropology, sociology, economics, psychology, political science, communications, and history. Researchers in each of these disciplines are interested in pursuing explanations for human social behavior. Sociologists and anthropologists, in particular, are interested in the empirical study of human behavior from a cultural and societal perspective. Oftentimes, social scientists are critiqued for their lack of a vigorous set of research standards that tend to be more apparent in the natural science disciplines. However, social scientists adopt both quantitative and qualitative methodologies by following a measurement process that helps to ensure both reliability and validity in their work. In addition, researchers develop studies that focus on exploratory, descriptive, and explanatory societal questions.

Research Design and Measurement in Social Research

Dimensions of research design include exploration, description, and explanation. Each design supports different fundamental research goals. Exploratory research is used when the goal is to become familiar with basic facts, people, and concerns. Researchers are often able to develop a well-grounded mental picture of the social situation that is unfolding. Researchers also generate main ideas and develop tentative theories, determine the feasibility of doing additional research, formulate questions and issues for further inquiry, and develop techniques and a sense of direction for research.

Descriptive research is used to provide an accurate profile of a group as well as describe processes, mechanisms, or relationships. In addition, descriptive research gives a verbal or numerical picture of a social setting. Researchers use the descriptive approach to find information to stimulate new explanations; present basic background information or context; create a set of categories and classify types; and clarify a sequence, set of stages, or steps.

Researchers carry out explanatory research when they are interested in solving a problem or establishing an explanation for why something exists as it does. A further goal of explanatory research is to determine the accuracy of a principle or theory. Explanatory research can also be used to find out which competing explanation is better and advance knowledge about an underlying process or social relationship. Explanatory research is especially useful to build or elaborate on a theory so it is more complete, extend a theory or principle into new areas or issues, and provide evidence to support or refute an explanation.

In addition to considering the type of design in social research, researchers must be able to develop measurement standards to establish consistency and accuracy in their concepts. Measurement involves developing a set of clearly defined variables that can be compared and analyzed as precise data points. In order to develop clear, well-defined concepts, researchers must conceptualize and operationalize their variables. Conceptualization involves developing a precise definition of the idea being studied. This definition serves as the standard for empirical measurement in the social world. Without this step, it would be difficult to develop a standard for the concepts being observed. The standard helps to ensure that the measure is observed consistently and accurately throughout the research study.

A second step in the measurement process is operationalization. Researchers operationalize concepts by specifically outlining how the measure will be tested empirically. In this process, it is imperative that researchers outline data collection steps. How do we capture the concept empirically? Whether we plan to test our concepts using surveys, participant observation, in-depth interviews, archival research, or experiments, we need to clearly establish guidelines for collecting data.

Proposing Research

Developing a strong research study requires a strong research proposal. Effort spent in this process helps the researcher outline a research agenda that combines both a discussion of relevant past research and proposed contributions to the field. A proposal should include the following sections: a clear and well-defined research question or problem, a discussion of relevant literature and past research studies, a description of how data will be collected including a discussion of how variables have been conceptualized and operationalized, and a conclusion that includes ethical issues and points for further discussion.

The proposal creates a map   of  sorts   for the researcher to follow. With a well-defined plan of study, the researcher can enter his or her study process with a clear idea of the overall agenda.

Specific Research Designs

Traditionally, social science researchers work with both quantitative and qualitative frameworks. Over time, emphasis has been placed on one research design or the other. However, more recently, there has been a push for collaboration among research designs. Different levels of depth, detail, and understanding can be accomplished through a combination of designs. For example, a field researcher concentrating on participant observation can collect rich, detailed descriptions of what she sees in the field, but may not have the data in a format that allows for any quantification for comparison. By including a survey tool, she can then compare basic demographic characteristics or other data that suits her research needs. Triangulation of methods has become accepted practice. Most social scientists agree that a combination of methods assists in helping to ensure validity and reliability.

Because of the nature of the data that is collected, most research methods are inherently quantitative or qualitative. Quantitative methods include survey research, secondary analysis, existing statistical analysis, and experiments. Qualitative methods include field research, historical comparative research, and natural experiments. Focus groups, case studies, and content analysis can be used as either quantitative or qualitative depending on how they are employed and the suitability of the research question.

Consistently increasing in the use since the 1930s and the development of George Gallup’s Gallup Poll, survey research is one of the most popular means of collecting data in the social sciences. If they are directed to a representative target population, surveys have shown to be useful in measuring popular opinion. Surveys are also used to measure attitude, behavior, knowledge, and consumer preference. Popular tools across the social sciences, surveys provide large amounts of data that can be gathered quickly, are relatively inexpensive to collect, and are easily quantified to be used for statistical analysis.

However, there are drawbacks to this method as well. Because most surveys consist of close-ended questions, the depth and breadth of the response is limited. Respondents may be choosing the ‘best’ response, though it may not truly represent their feelings or ideas. In addition, survey analysts have to account for a standard margin of error that can be derived from analyzing cases of missing responses, deceit, or simply misunderstanding the nature of the question.

Two additional quantitative methods that are often used in conjunction are secondary analysis and existing statistics. Each method relies on past collection of data. Secondary analysis is used when a researcher is interested in re-analyzing a study that has already been carried out. This occurs to offer a test of reliability of the study but can also serve as a means to test other cause-and-effect relationships or theoretical explanations of the variables.

Using existing statistics is slightly different. In this method, researchers are not collecting the data first hand either, but instead develop their own analytic schemata for data that has been compiled by another source. For example, researchers use U.S. Census data to analyze educational attainment by neighborhood by using zip code aggregate data and educational attainment rates by high school.

The experimental method is used most often in psychology but has been used to isolate causal factors in both sociology and anthropology. Used to isolate factors of cause-and-effect relationships, experiments are highly detailed in their design and rely on the researcher’s ability to test for validity through control of the experiment conditions. Most experiments in the social sciences rely on a controlled, simulated environment, where participants are observed before and after a change to the independent variable.

Qualitative methods differ in that the form of data is not numeric but highly detailed and relies on an incorporation of thematic analysis and empirical observation. Examples of data include, but are not limited to, interview transcriptions, maps, photographs, diaries or journals, oral histories, and document analysis. Common qualitative methods include field research, historical comparative research, and natural experiments.

Field research is based on techniques of observation and analysis in a natural setting. The goal of field research is to capture a real picture of human social behavior. In order to do this, researchers study groups and individuals in their natural social settings. Researchers can take on numerous roles in the field. Roles are categorized by four distinctions: participant observer, complete participant, complete observer, and observer participant. As participant observer, the researcher acts as a pseudomember of the group. Members are aware of the researcher’s role and recognize the duality of their responsibility as participant and observer. When the researcher acts as a complete participant she acts as a member of the group, keeping her identity as a researcher hidden from the group. There is some question as to what level of deception is acceptable. As a complete observer, the researcher remains undetected and unnoticed, reporting observations. The fourth role the researcher assumes is the observer as participant. In this situation, the researcher is a known, overt observer, however she has limited contact with members. She remains slightly detached from the group, which some argue allows for greater objectivity.

Two issues emerge in terms of validity of field research data. Researchers need to consider internal consistency, or whether the data are plausible given all that is known about a person, group, or event, not considering forms of human deception. External consistency, or whether observations and data can be verified or cross-checked with other sources of data, needs to be considered as well. Both of these issues rest with the research design and operationalization of the research question.

Historical comparative research is another form of qualitative research. Sources for this data include archives, library collections, and memory studies. Historical comparative researchers look for three things in their evidence: implicit conceptual framework, particular details, and empirical generalizations. The conceptual framework should include an implicit understanding of assumptions and perspective of the person reporting events. Researchers need to take careful consideration of times, dates, events, chronology, people involved, and locations. It is essential that researchers try to verify information by focusing on factual statements on which there is agreement. However, consideration must be taken to ensure that data is valid and not simply the result of a hidden historical agenda. The researcher is also interested in interpretations of evidence and the “silences” or cases where the evidence fails to address a particular event, topic, or issue.

Ethical Issues

Researchers need to be aware of their own cultural biases. Without this awareness, judgments of other cultures may be made that jeopardize the validity of the data. Even though it is difficult at times, one way to do this is to defocus before entering the field. This step involves figuratively removing oneself from the primary focus of the research paradigm. The goal is to remain open to everything one may encounter and to not take occurrences for granted but to acknowledge everything as potentially important and meaningful.

Social research methods allow us to provide explanations of human social behavior. Through a systematic approach, researchers can begin to make sense of the social world. Although some disciplines focus on particular methods over others (psychology: experiments; sociology: surveys; anthropology: field research), each takes into account the goals of the discipline in an effort to collect the most reliable and valid results possible.

References:

• Babbie, E. (2002). The basics of social research (2nd ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.
• Creswell, J. (2002). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed method approaches. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
• Neuman, L. (2003). Social research methods: Quantitative and qualitative approaches (5th ed.). Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
• Wysocki, D. K. (2004). Readings in social research methods. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.

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ANTHRO 3628 - Anthropological Research Methods

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This course offers a conceptual overview of research methods used by anthropologists. We will hear from faculty members their experience of doing fieldwork—from formulating a research question, choosing a site, entering the field to ethical issues they face in the field. Students will not only learn about but also practice these various methods and reflect on their projects in lights of the discussion about methods. To that end, students will complete several exercises and craft a method paper for their own project.

This course is limited to graduate students in anthropology.

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Research Methods in Anthropology

Anthropological researchers often use  ethnographic  and observational methods as well as  visual methods . Learning how to conduct fieldwork is important for anthropologists. To find out more about conducting fieldwork, try SAGE’s   Little Blue Book  series on qualitative methods.

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We have numerous resources for learning Anthropological methods. One of the best is the SAGE Research Methods Database: 

• Research methods in anthropology : qualitative and quantitative approaches by H. Russell Bernard Publication Date: 2017 Research Methods in Anthropology is the standard textbook for methods classes in anthropology. Whether you are coming from a scientific, interpretive, or applied anthropological tradition, you will learn field methods from the best guide in both qualitative and quantitative methods.
• Handbook of methods in cultural anthropology by H. Russell Bernard Publication Date: 2015 The Handbook of Methods in Cultural Anthropology, now in its second edition, maintains a strong benchmark for understanding the scope of contemporary anthropological field methods. Avoiding divisive debates over science and humanism, the contributors draw upon both traditions to explore fieldwork in practice.

Digital Data Management for a New Generation The American Anthropological Association has designed an online tool to help instructors in teaching about data management as an integral component of research design and data collection. These materials are geared toward early training in best practices. Such practices ultimately support long-term management—including upload into digital data archives and institutional repositories—and facilitate data sharing where appropriate.  

Use the Open Science Framework (OSF) to manage your work OSF is a tool that helps you manage, store, and keep safe your research materials. Find out more about using it, or get help from our Data Services team .

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• Ethnography: Topic Page The word ‘ethnography’ has a double meaning in anthropology: ethnography as product (ethnographic writings – the articles and books written by anthropologists), and ethnography as process (participant observation or fieldwork).
• Case Study From Key Concepts in Ethnography A case study investigates a few cases, or often just one case, in considerable depth. In ethnography, case studies are used in various ways to illuminate themes or draw inferences.
• Coding From Key Concepts in Ethnography Coding is a euphemism for the sorting and labelling which is part of the process of analysis.
• Reflexivity From The A-Z of Social Research The ‘problem’ is that ethnographers are part of the social world they study and do not collect uncontaminated data, the ‘solution’ is that they should situate the data by reflecting on how their presence and other contingencies helped to create the data.

• Fieldwork From Encyclopedia of Social and Cultural Anthropology There is a troubled relationship between the representation of anthropological fieldwork and the actuality of any particular fieldwork. In sober fact, fieldwork can take as many forms as there are anthropologists, projects, and circumstances.
• Content Analysis From The A-Z of Social Research Content analysis involves the description and analysis of text in order to represent its content. This takes the form of enumeration, such as counting the frequency of words and the number of column inches, and more qualitative assessment of the words and terms used, as undertaken in certain forms of discourse analysis.
• Fieldnotes From Key Concepts in Ethnography Fieldnotes are the written record of the observations, jottings, full notes, intellectual ideas, and emotional reflections that are created during the fieldwork process.
• Genealogical Method From Encyclopedia of Social and Cultural Anthropology The method required extensive interviewing of named individuals in order to: (1) collect vital statistics among a non-literate population, and (2) record their pedigrees, which reflected rights and responsibilities relating primarily to descent, succession, and inheritance.
• Interviews From The A-Z of Social Research Interviews are one of the most widely used and abused research methods. They provide a way of generating data by asking people to talk about their everyday lives. Their main function is to provide a framework in which respondents can express their own thoughts in their own words.
• Participant Observation From Key Concepts in Ethnography Participant observation is the main method of ethnography and involves taking part as a member of a community while making mental and then written, theoretically informed observations.
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